handwriting-vs-typing
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- PaperTESOL Quarterly10 Jul 2026
Handwritten Versus Typed Notes: The Impact of Note‐Taking Modes in Second Language Listening Tests
Jieun Kim
A study with 305 L2-English adults found no significant overall score differences between handwritten, typed, and no note-taking conditions on TOEFL iBT lecture comprehension tasks. However, item-level differential functioning and note content differences emerged, suggesting test developers should reconsider note-taking policies for validity and fairness. Pedagogical implications include allowing students autonomy in choosing note-taking modes and providing instruction in various strategies.
Original abstract
Technological advancements have influenced note‐taking practices in classrooms as well as their treatment in standardized language assessments. Many high‐stakes English listening tests (e.g., TOEFL iBT, IELTS) include varying note‐taking guidelines, often established without empirical support. This study examined the effects of note‐taking modes on listening performance and note content. A total of 305 L1‐Korean L2‐English adults were randomly assigned to handwriting ( n = 102), typing ( n = 102), or no note‐taking ( n = 101) conditions and completed TOEFL iBT lecture comprehension tasks. Linear regression results revealed no significant differences in overall test scores across modes. Uniform Differential Item Functioning (DIF) analyses indicated that one item favored handwriting and another favored typing, while non‐uniform DIF emerged for the same items only among lower‐ability participants. When examining note‐taking features, no significant differences were found in word count or translanguaging across modes. However, handwritten notes contained more information units, verbatim transcription, and nonlinguistic elements. The overall lack of significant performance differences, together with finer‐grained differences at the item and note‐content levels, calls for test developers to reconsider note‐taking policies in terms of test validity and fairness. Pedagogical implications are discussed, highlighting the importance of granting students autonomy to choose note‐taking modes and providing instructional sessions to experience various note‐taking strategies.