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- PaperETS Research Report Series16 Jul 2026
Second Language Writing Processes in the TOEFL iBT® Test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion Task Using Eye-Tracking, Keystroke Logging, and Stimulated Recall
Ching-Ni Hsieh, Renka Ohta
Using eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall, the study examined L2 writing processes in the TOEFL iBT Write for an Academic Discussion task. The integrated data revealed five core cognitive processes—prompt (re)reading, planning, formulation, monitoring, and revision—and showed that task design influences strategic behaviors and attention allocation, supporting construct validity.
Original abstract
The present study investigates the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT® writing test and focuses on the writing processes elicited by the Write for an Academic Discussion (WAD) task. Nineteen adult L2 English users completed the WAD task while their eye movements and keystrokes were recorded, followed by stimulated recall interviews to capture their writing strategies and thought processes. Eye-tracking data revealed sustained attention to the writing window, with frequent reference to the task question and example posts. Keystroke logging indicated substantial initial pauses and language-related revision behaviors. Qualitative analysis of stimulated recalls identified five core cognitive processes: prompt (re)reading, planning, formulation, monitoring, and revision. The integration of eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall demonstrates that the WAD task engages L2 writers in processes consistent with theoretical models of academic writing, supplying backing for the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT Writing test. The findings also reveal that task design features may influence L2 writing processes and shape writers’ strategic behaviors and attention allocation. Suggested citation: Hsieh, C.-N., & Ohta, R. (in press). Second language writing processes in the TOEFL iBT® test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion task using eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall (Research Report). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/tk1sd682
- PaperETS Research Report Series2 Jul 2026
The Relationship Between the TOEFL iBT® Test and Academic Writing Practices in English-Medium Universities in South Asia: Case Studies From Bangladesh, India, and Nepal
Anthony Green, Saraswati Dawadi, Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, Ram Ashish Giri et al.
This mixed-methods study investigated the alignment between TOEFL iBT Writing tasks and actual academic writing practices at six English-medium universities in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. It found that while the test tasks aligned well with content course expectations, they differed from typical English language classroom practices that emphasized surface-level skills. Both students and teachers generally viewed the test positively, though concerns emerged about the integrated writing task's difficulty and the broader sociopolitical implications of using a foreign-made test for admissions.
Original abstract
Acknowledging that all sections of the TOEFL iBT® test should be used for admissions decisions, this study focuses specifically on the potential of the TOEFL iBT Writing section as one component of entry screening for English-medium undergraduate business and engineering programs at six universities in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal. Using a mixed-methods approach, researchers collected data from 180 first-year students and 24 teachers through TOEFL iBT Writing tests, questionnaires, focus groups, and interviews. The study investigated the alignment between TOEFL iBT Writing tasks and university writing practices, as well as test performance and teacher and student perceptions of the test’s appropriateness, as part of procedures for student admissions. Although TOEFL iBT Writing tasks aligned well with content course expectations, they differed from typical English language classroom practices, which tended to focus on surface-level skills. Both students and teachers generally viewed TOEFL iBT Writing tasks positively. However, some concerns were raised about the difficulty of the integrated writing task, particularly for students unfamiliar with the format or struggling with the listening input. Test scores and qualitative data suggested that although many students possessed adequate English writing skills for academic study, a minority experienced real difficulties. This raised questions about current institutional English-medium instruction policies. Despite overall positive perceptions among participants, adopting TOEFL iBT as an entry measure may face resistance due to social, cultural, and political factors associated with using a foreign-made test designed for North American settings. The study’s findings have implications for curriculum development and English language teaching practices in South Asian higher education contexts. Suggested citation: Green, A., Dawadi, S., Kukulska-Hulme, A., Giri, R. A., Khan, R., & Mahapatra S. (2026). The relationship between the TOEFL iBT® test and academic writing practices in English-medium universities in South Asia: Case studies from Bangladesh, India, and Nepal (TOEFL® Research Report No. RR-108). https://doi.org/10.64634/3ng15y64