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• Paper·ETS Research Report Series·16 Jul 2026

  Second Language Writing Processes in the TOEFL iBT® Test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion Task Using Eye-Tracking, Keystroke Logging, and Stimulated Recall

  Ching-Ni Hsieh, Renka Ohta

  Using eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall, the study examined L2 writing processes in the TOEFL iBT Write for an Academic Discussion task. The integrated data revealed five core cognitive processes—prompt (re)reading, planning, formulation, monitoring, and revision—and showed that task design influences strategic behaviors and attention allocation, supporting construct validity.

  Original abstract

  The present study investigates the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT® writing test and focuses on the writing processes elicited by the Write for an Academic Discussion (WAD) task. Nineteen adult L2 English users completed the WAD task while their eye movements and keystrokes were recorded, followed by stimulated recall interviews to capture their writing strategies and thought processes. Eye-tracking data revealed sustained attention to the writing window, with frequent reference to the task question and example posts. Keystroke logging indicated substantial initial pauses and language-related revision behaviors. Qualitative analysis of stimulated recalls identified five core cognitive processes: prompt (re)reading, planning, formulation, monitoring, and revision. The integration of eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall demonstrates that the WAD task engages L2 writers in processes consistent with theoretical models of academic writing, supplying backing for the construct validity of the TOEFL iBT Writing test. The findings also reveal that task design features may influence L2 writing processes and shape writers’ strategic behaviors and attention allocation. Suggested citation: Hsieh, C.-N., & Ohta, R. (in press). Second language writing processes in the TOEFL iBT® test: Examining the Write for an Academic Discussion task using eye-tracking, keystroke logging, and stimulated recall (Research Report). ETS. https://doi.org/10.64634/tk1sd682

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