meta-analysis
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- PaperLanguage Teaching Research25 Jul 2026
The Effectiveness of Multilingual Versus Monolingual Approaches to L2 Teaching and Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Learning Outcomes
Meixiu Zhang, Amanda Brown
A meta-analysis of 24 studies with 2,138 learners compared multilingual (codeswitching) and monolingual (L2-only) approaches to L2 teaching and found that multilingual approaches yielded better learning outcomes (between-group d = .49, within-group d = 1.63). Positive effects held across ages and proficiency levels, with stronger benefits for speaking skills, beginners, and teacher-implemented interventions in foreign language settings.
Original abstract
The debate on multilingual (codeswitching) versus monolingual (immersive, target-language only) approaches to second language (L2) teaching has received renewed attention in recent decades. Both approaches are employed in L2 teaching and learning, supported by competing philosophies regarding the need for maximal L2 input and the facilitative potential of first language (L1) inclusion. Given a growth in experimental research comparing the effectiveness in terms of learning outcomes of the two approaches in L2 classrooms, this meta-analysis study investigates the effects of multilingual versus monolingual approaches on outcomes as measured by language assessments and examines the variables (age, proficiency, learning context, target skill area, and procedure for learning) that moderate such effects. We conducted a comprehensive search for empirical investigations of the topic, resulting in 24 studies comprising 30 samples with a total of 2,138 learners after the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria. Through aggregating the effect sizes from this sample, analyses revealed that compared with a monolingual approach, a multilingual approach better facilitated L2 learning with a weighted between-group effect size of d = .49 and a within-group effect size of d = 1.63. The analyses of moderator variables revealed that the positive effects on the learning of skills and language content areas of a multilingual approach appear to hold across all ages and proficiencies, especially for beginning-level learners and in conditions where both teachers and students employed their L1 in L2 teaching and learning. Also, a multilingual approach showed a larger effect in studies where speaking was the target skill area, or where the treatment was longer, was conducted in foreign language settings, was conducted in intact classrooms, or was administered by a teacher or teacher-researcher. Our findings contribute evidence supporting the effectiveness in terms of learning outcomes of a multilingual (codeswitching, translanguaging) over a monolingual (immersive, L2-only) approach and provide insights into the nuances involved. These include the skill areas and proficiency levels benefiting the most, and the importance of involving teachers as agents of research in their classrooms.
- PaperReCALL17 Jul 2026
The effect of high-immersion virtual reality environments on L2 learners’ socio-emotional variables: A meta-analysis
Yulia Khoruzhaya, Kara Moranski, Alexandra Neuenschwander, Nicole Ziegler
A meta-analysis of 18 studies (n=996) found that high-immersion virtual reality (HiVR) significantly improved L2 learners' socio-emotional outcomes, including presence, self-efficacy, motivation, and engagement, while reducing anxiety, compared to low-immersion instruction. The overall effect size was g=0.50, with variability explained by learner proficiency and target language, but not by educational level or VR design features.
Original abstract
The effect of high-immersion virtual reality (HiVR) on second language (L2) learners’ socio-emotional responses has gained increasing attention in recent years, though findings remain mixed. This study meta-analyzed 18 primary studies (31 effect sizes, n = 996) published between 2019 and 2024 to examine (a) the overall effect of HiVR on L2 learners’ socio-emotional variables as compared with low-immersion (2D) language instruction and (b) the extent to which this effect varies as a function of three groups of moderators, including specific socio-emotional variables as well as learner- and treatment-related characteristics. Regarding educational level, the included studies evaluated secondary and postsecondary L2 learners. Using a random-effects model, the resulting aggregate effect size across studies was g = 0.50. Subsequent moderator analyses showed that HiVR significantly increased L2 learners’ sense of presence, self-efficacy, motivation, and engagement, while reducing anxiety as compared to less immersive experiences. Additionally, variability in the effect of HiVR was explained by learners’ proficiency level and target language. No significant moderating effect was identified for educational level, HiVR content, HiVR learning activities, and head-mounted display type. These findings underscore HiVR’s potential as a powerful tool for improving socio-emotional outcomes in L2 learning.
- PaperReCALL13 Jul 2026
The effectiveness of computerized dynamic assessment in improving L2 performance: A three-level meta-analysis
Qi Lu, Mengqi Chen, Lianrui Yang, Shaofeng Li et al.
A three-level meta-analysis of 35 studies found that computerized dynamic assessment (C-DA) has large positive effects on L2 performance, with cake format (mediation embedded in the test) yielding larger effect sizes than sandwich format (mediation between pretest and posttest). Moderator analyses identified number of items, test content, and learners' first language as significant factors influencing C-DA effectiveness.
Original abstract
The growing body of research on the effects of computerized dynamic assessment (C-DA) on second language (L2) learning underscores the need for a comprehensive research synthesis to identify future research directions and inform the application of C-DA in L2 educational contexts. This meta-analysis employed a three-level modeling approach to examine the effectiveness of C-DA in improving L2 learners’ performance. It synthesized 27 effect sizes from cake format designs, in which mediation is embedded within the test sequence, and 24 effect sizes from sandwich format designs, where mediation is delivered between a pretest and a posttest, across 35 studies published between 2000 and May 27, 2025. This study also investigated the key variables that moderate C-DA effectiveness. Findings reveal large, significant positive effects of both the cake and sandwich formats on L2 performance improvement (cake format: g = 2.120, p < .001; sandwich format: g = 1.676, p < .001), with the cake format tending to yield larger effect sizes. This may be because the cake format captures gains during mediation, whereas the sandwich format reflects post-mediation outcomes. Moderator analyses show that the number of items, test content, and learners’ first language affect C-DA effectiveness in promoting L2 performance. Drawing on the synthesized findings, this study contributes to theoretical, methodological, and technological understandings of C-DA and offers suggestions for future research in this domain.
- PaperLanguage Teaching16 Jun 2026
A multilevel Bayesian meta-analysis of the effects of translanguaging pedagogy on L2 achievement
Xiaoqi Wang, Lawrence Jun Zhang
A multilevel Bayesian meta-analysis of 108 effect sizes from 40 studies found a positive effect of translanguaging pedagogy on L2 achievement (Hedges' g = 1.014). Moderator analyses identified educational level and target language skills as sources of heterogeneity, with tertiary-level learners and speaking outcomes yielding the largest effects. These findings support translanguaging pedagogy as effective for L2 learning.
Original abstract
Globalisation and the multilingual turn in applied linguistics have exposed a persistent tension between learners’ linguistic repertoires and traditional monolingual pedagogies. It is out of this tension that translanguaging pedagogy (TP) emerged as an instructional framework grounded in translanguaging theory, witnessing a burgeoning empirical literature on its classroom value. However, the empirical evidence has failed to produce a coherent account of TP’s effectiveness in L2 education, as findings have exhibited considerable heterogeneity across instructional contexts, learner populations, and outcome measures. The present study sought to reconcile these inconsistent findings through a multilevel Bayesian meta-analysis of 108 effect sizes drawn from 40 independent studies among 3,145 learners. The pooled effect size of Hedges’ g = 1.014 (standard error = 0.138, 95% credible interval [0.748, 1.291]) establishes a positive and statistically credible effect of TP on L2 achievement. Moderator analyses identified educational level and target language skills as credible sources of heterogeneity, with tertiary-level learners and speaking outcomes yielding the largest effect sizes. Target language, linguistic distance, and treatment duration did not reach the posterior probability threshold for credible inference. These findings advance the theoretical understanding of TP and furnish an empirically grounded basis for instructional decision-making in L2 education.
- PaperApplied Linguistics5 Jun 2026
L2 grit unboxed: A meta-analytic journey into L2 grit and its correlates
Tutku Başöz
This meta-analysis synthesized correlations between L2 grit and six correlates across 34 studies (N=13,068). L2 motivation was the strongest correlate (r=.58), followed by foreign language anxiety (r=-.47), while growth mindset was the weakest (r=.33).
Original abstract
As an emerging field of study within second language acquisition (SLA), the notion of grit has gained immediate relevance as it is considered to play a key role in language achievement. Although recent years have witnessed increasing attention to second language (L2) grit due to its merits in foreign/second language learning processes, a comprehensive meta-analysis synthesizing the results of all available studies on the relationship between L2 grit and its frequently associated variables is currently lacking. Therefore, the current meta-analytic study scrutinized the total mean correlation between L2 grit and six main correlates examined in the research domain: foreign language enjoyment, L2 motivation, foreign language anxiety (FLA), ideal L2 self, growth mindset, and teacher support. A total of k = 34 effect sizes were analyzed with an overall sample size of N = 13,068 in random-effects models with correlation coefficients. The findings indicated that L2 motivation is the strongest correlate of L2 grit (r = .58), indicating a large effect size. The other five variables were moderately correlated with L2 grit, with FLA (r = −.47) being the strongest correlate and growth mindset (r = .33) being the weakest correlate. Implications of these findings and directions for future research are discussed.